第一部分 1 初级句型-简单句(Simple Sentences):(1.1)基本句型&补语、(1.2)名词短语&冠词、(1.3)动词时态、(1.4)不定式短语、(1.5)动名词、(1.6)分词、(1.7)形容词、(1.8)副词、(1.9)语气词、(1.10)介词、(1.11)主谓一致性
 
1.1 五种基本句型&补语
1.1.1 五中基本句型
主谓(sv)
主谓宾(svo)
主谓宾宾(svoo)
主谓补(svc)
主谓宾补(svoc)
一个句子需要“主语”+“动词(谓语)”才能表达完整的意思,主语是动作的“叙述对象”,而动词构成“叙述的主要内容”。
 
1.1.2 补语(Complement):有且仅有解释为“是”的动词是空洞而没有叙述能力的,只起到连接主语和后边构成叙述的部分的作用,故称为“连缀动词(linking verb)”,这种连缀动词后边的部分因替代了动词所扮演的叙述角色,补足句子完整的意思,因而称为“补语”。
 
1.1.3 “不及物”和“及物”动词:可独立发生,不牵扯到别的人或物的动词即为不及物动词。必须发生在另一个对象上的动词,即为及物动词,通常必须后接宾语来“接受”这个动作。
 
1.1.4 所有的后接补语的“连缀动词”都可以解释为各种各样的“是”或“为”(“为不过是文言文的“是””):主语配上以下任意动词而不能构成完整有意义的句子,该动词就是空洞的,需要补语来补足。
     look 看起来是
     seem 似乎是
     appear 显的是
     sound 听起来是
     feel 摸起来是
     taste 尝起来是
     turn 转变为
     prove 证实为
     become 成为
     make 作为
以上动词在主谓补(svc)的句型中,将动词通通换成纯粹的be动词,其意义基本不发生变化。
主谓补(svc)句型是用补语来说明主语是什么,中间用“是”动词串联起来,而主谓宾补(svoc)句型则是用补语说明宾语是什么,中间暗示有个“是”的关系存在。如果把宾语和补语拿出来,中间加入一个be动词,则会构成一个主谓补(svc)的句子。
 
1.1.5 补语的词类可以是名词(noun)或形容词(adj)。
 
1.1.6 be动词后接补语时,是解释为“是或为”的最纯粹的连缀动词,通产不会翻译出“是或为”这个字眼(尤其,补语是形容词时)。而be动词后没有补语时,是单纯的“主谓(sv)结构”,通常需要解释为“存在”而不是“是或为”。
 
1.1.7 主谓宾宾(svoo)和主谓宾补(svoc)区别:前者涉及3个对象,分别是主语(动作发起者)、第一宾语(动作接收者)、第二宾语(具体的物品),第一宾语和第二宾语都是名词,但是并不相等。后者句型中,宾语是名词,并且补语也可以是名词,但是宾语和补语之间存在“等于是”的关系。
 
 
1.1 本小节示例及练习:
John Smith died in World War Two. (sv结构,die为不及物动词,主语+不及物动词可以构成意思完整的句子)
John Smith killed three enemy soldiers. (svo结构,kill为及物动词,主语+及物动词+宾语构成意思完整的句子)
John Smith was a soldier. (svc结构,注意be动词后边的补语是名词)
John smith was courageous. (svc结构,be动词后边接形容词补语,通常不翻译"是或为")
Taroko Gorge is beautiful. (svc结构,太鲁阁峡谷很美,不翻译是)
The soup is too hot. (svc结构,不翻译是)
The dress looks pretty. (svc结构,look可换成be,那件裙子很好看)
The dog seems friendly. (svc结构,seem可换成be,那只狗好像很友善)
His demands appear reasonable. (svc结构,appear可换成be,他的要求显得很合理)
His trip sound exciting. (svc结构,sound可换成be,他的旅行听起来很刺激)
I feel sick. (svc结构,feel可换成be,我感觉不舒服)
The drug tastes bitter. (svc结构,taste可换成be,药很苦)
The story proved false. (svc结构,prove可换成be,故事经证实是捏造的)
He became a teacher. (svc结构,become可换成be,他当了老师)
A nurse makes a good wife. (svc结构,make可换成be,娶护士做太太真不错)
I find the dress pretty. (svoc结构,形容词做宾语的补语,我觉得这衣服很漂亮)
The meat made the dog friendly. (svoc结构,形容词做宾语的补语,肉让狗变得很友善)
They consider his demands reasonable. (svoc结构,形容词做宾语的补语,他们认为他的要求是合理的)
He found the trip exciting. (svoc结构,形容词做补语,他觉得这次旅行很刺激)
The food made me sick. (svoc结构,形容词做补语,这种食物使我想吐)
I don't find the drug bitter. (svoc结构,形容词做补语,我并不觉得药很苦)
I consider the story false. (svoc结构,形容词做补语,我认为故事是捏造的)
His college training made him a teacher. (svoc结构,名词做补语,他的大学教育使他成为一名教师)
Most people consider a nurse a good wife. (svoc结构,名词做补语,大多数人认为护士会是称职的太太)
I think; therefore I am. (sv结构,be动词后无补语,翻译为”存在“。笛卡尔:”我思故我在“)
To be or not to be, that is the question. (sv结构,be动词后无补语,翻译为”存在“。汉姆雷特:”要存在还是不要存在(要不要活下去),那是个问题“)
John's father give him a dog. (svoo结构,”主语“给”宾语“一个”物品“,两个宾语一个是给的接收对象,一个是给的东西)
John's father called him a dog. (svoc结构,”主语“骂”宾语“是”物品“,宾语和补语隐含”等于是“的关系)
 
 
The magician moved his fingers quickly. (svo)
The police found the letter missing. (svoc)
The police found the missing letter. (svo)
He ordered himself a steak and a bottle of red wine. (svoo)
Don't you like dancing? (svo)
■The President has gone abroad on a visit. (sv,abroad译为”到国外、在国外“,其本身是adj或adv,主语President和谓语has gone已构成完整的意思”总统走了“,不需要补语。)
■That sounds like a good idea. (svc)
The box feels heavy. (svc)
■He told his guests a dirty joke at the party. (svoo)
The people elected Bill Clinton President. (svoc)
The child asks her mother a million questions a day. (svoo)
Monkeys love bananas. (svo)
■You can leave the door open. (svoc,door和open有”等于是“的暗示,谓语为普通动词)
■The company has gone bankrupt. (svc,主语company配上谓语has gone不能说明完整的意思,需要补语banrupt补充说明,并且谓语has gone可以换为be动词)
Why don't you answer me? (svo)
■I consider you a member of family. (svoo,一个是称呼的对象,一个是称呼。)
It never rains in California. (sv)
You'll look better with these designer glasses on. (svc)
■I can see better without these reading glasses. (sv,主语I和谓语see已构成完整的意思”我能看见“,不需要补语)
Do you call me a liar? (svoc)
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1.2 名词短语&冠词
1.2.1 名词短语可以用做主语、宾语、补语、介词后的宾语,使用频率极高。像大多数拼音文字一样,英语用名词“词尾的变化”来表示单、复数,用其前面的限定词(Determiners)与词尾的单复数相呼应,共同限定名词的范围,例如:冠词就是Determiners的一种。

1.2.2 名词短语常见的标准形式为:“限定词(Determiner)”+“形容词(adjective)”+“名词(noun)”,这三个部分都可以省略,省略后可以是“限定词”+“名词”(a book)、“限定词”+“形容词”(the bese)、甚至只是“限定词”(those)的形式。

1.2.3 从词源学(etymology)来说,冠词a(an)可视为one一字的弱化(reduction)结果,只是语气较弱,它和one一样用来交代后边的名词是“一个”的概念,若名词不适合以“一个”来交代,则可以把限定词空置下来,即:名词不适合加"a(an)",则其前方就不能加限定词。如:复数名词不能用“一个”来交代、抽象名词(honesty、bribery)没有具体的形态,也不能以“一个”来表示、物质名词(water、food)虽然是具体东西,可是形状不固定,也不能以“一个”来表示,这些不能以a(an)来引到的词就可以把限定词省略掉。简言之,对于名词,如果词尾加“s”则表示名词为复数,如果加“a(an)”则表示为单数;如果不能加“s“则名词通常不可数,也就不能加"a(an)",此时,就可以省略限定词。{bribery:n:受贿,行贿,贿赂行为;}

1.2.4 表示人名或地名的专有名词,代表的对象只有一个,因此可以不加a(an),若加了"a(an)"则表明是”一个长城“的意思,也就暗示了还有”另外的长城“存在。因此,加”a(an)“和加”s“是一体的两个方面,我们分别用这两种符号来区分单、复数,若一个名词不能加"s"或者说名词不能做不规则的复数变化,则它也不能添加a(an)。

1.2.5 要注意在不同范围下,名词可能是专有名词也可能是可数名词。如:There are 5 Sundays this month.(可数名词,非专有名词)、I am not at home on Sunday.(专有名词)。此外,尤其要注意补语位置的专有名词,”补语“和”主语或宾语“是有同等关系的,若主语或宾语是专有名词,则它的补语作为同等关系的内容也必须具有”唯一“的性质,因此可以用专有名词来诠释补语,所以不用加a(an)或s。若补语不具有”唯一“的性质,则会看做普通名词对待。如:Some say he was a better president than Mr. Robert.(比较两任的校长功绩的时候,总统将作为普通名词使用)。当”同位语“是补语时,也需要留意专有名词的问题,判断方式也同样是”是否具有唯一“的性质。遇到主语补语或者宾语补语时,要注意其是否为专有名词。

1.2.6 在语源学上,定冠词"the"可视为指示形容词that或those的弱化形式,其具有明确的指示功能。凡是上下文中有明指或暗示时,即有”那个“的指示功能时,便要使用定冠词"the"。先了解a(an)是one(一个)的弱化,the则是that/those(那个)的弱化,即使上下文没有明确指明,但有清楚的暗示时,仍然要用定冠词the。

1.2.7 专有名词和定冠词是冲突的,不能并存。加了the就表示”某个东西有两个以上或者有两个以上的方面,专指这一个或这一方面“,而专有名词则表示”某个东西只有一个对象存在“,因此就没有”这个、那个“一说。

1.2.8 注意名词短语的省略形式,在不引起歧义的原则下,名词短语可以省略以便精简句子。如:the Pacific (Ocean)、the Indian Ocean,前者无歧义可以省略,后者可能会误认为印第安人所以不可省略。
 
1.2 本小节示例及练习
注:(Determiner、Adjective、Noun)
a new book (DAN)
many good students (DAN)
his beautiful wife (DAN)
the best answer (DAN)
those sweet roses (DAN)
Of these answers, this one is the best. (省略名词,只保留限定词和形容词的名词短语)
I want those. (指着玫瑰花说,限定词those做省略的名词短语)
Unmarried men are rare species these days. ("未婚男性目前是稀有品种了",men指名是复数,不能加限定词) {rare:adj:罕见的,珍贵的,煎的嫩的;species:n:种类,(单复同)物种;}
Honesty is not necessarily the best policy. (抽象名词无形状不能用"一个"来形容)
Fresh water is a precious resource in Saudi Arabia. (无形状的物质名词也不能用"一个"来形容)
There are five Sundays this month. (在月份的范围下,星期五有多个,其作为可数名词)
I have an appointment on Sunday. (在本周范围下,星期一仅一个,其作为专有名词)
Mr. Elson was president of the high school. (补语位置的专有名词,president本身为普通名词,但其作为句意内独一无二的专有名词Mr.Elson的补语,起补充说明作用的补语是可以和主语划等号的,故是president也可视为专有名词)
Some say he was a better president than Mr. Robert. (句意是比较两任校长,president可以加s,因此非专有名词)
Mr. Elson is also a member of the Council of the city. (补语位置的名词短语表示的是一组人里边的一个,不能做专有名词)
Mattin Wales, Head of the football team, at the time, wore a mustache. (补语作同位语,本句的补语实际上是形容词从句who was Head of the football team at the time的省略,who代表Mattin Wales,Head作为主语补语等同于Mattin Wales,因此可看作专有名词)
Clinton made Gorle campaign partner of the Presidential election. (不光是主语的补语,宾语的补语也要注意专有名词的问题。本句中的竞选搭档[副总统]是宾语Gorle的补语,具有相等的意味且在句意中唯一,故作为专有名词。)
I need a book to read on my trip. (带本书读,不特指哪一本)
I have finished the book you lent me. (你借我的那本书,特指那本书)
Modern history is my favorite subject. (history是抽象名词,不可数因而也不能加a,modern只是修饰词不具有明确指示的功能)
The history of recent China is a sorry record. (特指近代中国的那段历史,需要定冠词the)
He should be home; I saw a light in his house. (虽然有in the house修饰,但一所房子的灯很多,看到的只是一盏灯,不具有明确指示。"a(an)是one的弱化")
Turn off the portal light. (特指大门口的那盏灯灯,通常只有一个。"the 是that和those的弱化")
I am goting to the office now. (虽未明确指示,但有清楚的暗示:老婆知道是说的"老公上班的办公室",需要定冠词the)
Do you mind if I open the window? (虽未明确指示,但对话情景暗示是"身旁"的那扇,需要定冠词)
Do you mind if i open a window? (a window表示一扇窗户或任意窗户,无明确指代,其意思是"打开车内的一扇窗户",尤其在公交车上,对着某人说打开车内的任何一扇窗户会不和情理。但如果是多人在轿车中抽烟时,在征求车内所有人的意见时,"想打开随便一扇窗户透气"的情形确实合理的。)
This is not the John Smith I know. (专有名词和定冠词是冲突的,不能并存。若使用了the,则表示还有其他的或两个以上的个体存在,而特指这一个,因此也就不能称其为专有名词了。本句中隐含着用于比较的两个John,而特指出不是我认识的那个,因此加定冠词是合理的。)
This is a photography show of the Taibei 50 years ago. (“这是展示50年前的台北的摄影展”,50年前的台北和如今的台北明显不同,句中的专有名词Taibei加了定冠词the后成为普通名词,特指50年前的那个。)
the Pacific (Ocean) (Pacific是形容词,而Ocean有多个,加the表示名为"太平洋"的那个,只不过因为不会引起歧义而省略了普通名词Ocean。完完全全的普通名词,而非所谓的专有名词。)
the Atlantic (Ocean) (省略Ocean的普通名词,"大西洋")
the Indian Ocean (此处因省略Ocean后会引起歧义,不能区分是印第安人还是印度洋,所以不能省略)
the Mediterranean (Sea) (地中海)
the Dead Sea (不能省略sea,否则无法区分the Dead[死者]还是表示死海)
the Philippine Islands = the Philippines (省略Island并把群岛的s移到philippine的后边,用来表示菲律宾群岛,同时也能区分菲律宾人和菲律宾群岛,是很合理的省略)
the Alp Mountains = the Alps (省略Mountain并把s移到Alp后边,表示阿尔卑斯群山)
the Mississippi (River) (密西西比河)
the Titanic (Ship) (泰坦尼克号)
the Hilton (Hotel) (希尔顿酒店)
the United States of America (形容词和普通名词组成的名词短语,加the表示特指称为"美国"的那个联合州,而America是专有名词,因此不加the)
the United Nations (省略of the world的普通名词,有时简称为the UN)
 
 
■The carpenter repaired D.
[A] the table's legs     [B] table's legs     [C] legs of the table     [D] the legs of the table
注释:所有格的两种表现形式,用于人和其他生物时用s形式;而用于无生命的物体则用of。本句属无生物,应用of,并且of the table指出是"那些"桌腿,所以需要定冠词the。
■Mr.Smith has three A under his name.
[A] shoe stores     [B] shoes stores    [C] shoe store     [D] shoestores
注释:复合名词时,前面的名词放在形容词位置,当形容词而用只能为单数。句中有three限定,因此用stores,故选A。
The house sits on a C road.
[A] twelve feet in width     [B] of twelve feet     [C] twelve-foot-wide     [D] twelve-feet
注释:空格位置是形容词,只能放单词并且做形容词时只能用单数,故选C。
These men and women are all C.
[A] language's teachers     [B] languages teachers     [C] language teachers     [D] languages' teachers
注释:"语言教师"是复合名词,只能从B、C选,且language做形容词为单数,故C。
He ordered C for breakfast.
[A] orange juice, bread and butter, coffee, and bacon, and eggs
[B] orange, juice, bread, and butter, coffee and bacon, and eggs
[C] orange juice, bread and butter, coffee, and bacon and eggs
注释:bread and butter"奶油土司"是一种食品,并且两个词都不可数,因此不需要限定词;bacon and eggs"火腿蛋"亦是,虽然eggs是可数的,但领头的bacon不可数,因此也不加限定词。
The prime minister is the real ruler and prince is merely a C.
[A] little     [B] small     [C] nobody     [D] none
注释:nobody译为"无名小卒",作为普通名词看待,可以加a。A、B都是形容词,而none就是no one,因为no已经就是限定词了,因此不能加冠词。{prime minister首要大臣,即重臣。merely仅仅,只不过}
■Living in the city, he was always being annoyed by noises of C.
[A] one sort of other     [B] one sort of the other     [C] one sort or another     [D] one or others sorts
注释:one sort or another是常用短语,译为"各种各样的"。它本身其实就是one sort or another sort省略重复单词的结果。
■Writing is one thing and talking is quite B.
[A] the other     [B] another     [C] others     [D] the others
注释:another thing和one thing是相对应得两个常用短语,表示"不同的两件事",其中another 是省略了重复词thing的结果。
The majority of the Members of Parliament are men, but there are D women, of course.
[A] few     [B] little     [C] any     [D] quite a few
注释:any用于否定句或疑问句,疑问句时译为"一些",否定句中译为"任何",再次此不合适。little修饰不可数名词,few修饰可数名词,但是few具有"没多少"的否定意味,a few则是"有一些"的肯定意味。副词quite用来强调语气,表示"还不少",并且有连接词but也可以看出上下文要求肯定语气。
A is what he said: Don't go out!
[A] This     [B] That     [C] The     [D] These
注释:表示上文讲过的一句话,可以用this或that。如:There's going to be a raise.Isn't this/that great? 但是代表下文要说的一句话只能用this。
■Whether you serve coffee or tea doesn't matter; B will do.
[A] any     [B] either     [C] some     [D] all
注释:两者之间选一个用either,三者之间选一个用any。
As we hac finished the first chapter, now we will read B.
[A] second     [B] the second     [C] second one     [D] the two
注释:the second对称于前面的the first,并且学生和老师都明白特指的是哪一章。
He has two daughters; one is singer and C an actress.
[A] another    [B] other     [C] the other     [D] the others
注释:两个,除去唱歌的,就是指明了剩下的"那一个",需要定冠词the。注意the other后省略了is。
■He asked if eighty dollars was enough, and I said that B twenty would do.
[A] more     [B] another     [C] other     [D] the other
注释:80刀中已有4个20刀,所以再来一个another,就凑够100刀了。
■Mary Kurt, A of the troupe, was strongly against smoking.
[A] alto     [B] the alto     [C] an alto     [D] altos
注释:空格位置是Mary Kurt的同位语,同位语时要考虑专有名词,有根据was判断是单数,因此符合专有名词,不加冠词。alto男高音或女高音,troupe(演出的)一个团或一个班}
■This kid of ball-pen holds A ink than that.
[A] less     [B] fewer     [C] much     [D] little
注释:ink不可数,排除fewer。并且than that比较级,应该用选A。可数时,多用many(比较级more),少用few(less);不可数时,多用much(more),少用little(less);
John woeks harder than B boy in his class.
[A] all other     [B] any other     [C] all the other     [D] any
注释:空格后边是boy,因此用单数的B或D。英语要求严格的比较级,只能说比班上"别的"同学用功,不然会造成"自己比自己用功"的语病,所以需要other来限定范围。
■I was told to take the pills B six hours.
[A] each     [B] every     [C] other     [D] the other
注释:多久一次,需要用限定词every来限定,例如:every day,every week,every two months,every century,every hundred years。虽然six hours是复数,但是像hours、miles、pounds等代表"单位"的字眼也可当单数使用,例如:Three miles is a long way to walk,因此这里并不冲突。
The man was badly wounded, but there could still be C hope.
[A] little     [B] few     [C]  a little      [D] a few
注释:空格后为不可数名词,因此用A或C,根据句意因选择C,表示还有些希望,A则表示"基本没希望了"。
B these people are going to the concert.
[A] The most     [B] Most of     [C] Most     [D] Almost
注释:空格后有完整的名词且已有限定词these,因此不能直接加限定词,需要用介词of隔开,而且这里most表示"大部分"而非高级因而也不用加the,故选B。
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